What is first aid?

First aid is emergency care given immediately to an injured person. The purpose of first aid is to minimize injury and future disability. In serious cases, first aid may be necessary to keep the victim alive.

What are first aid requirements?

We have a requirement for the workplace to provide at least some level of first aid. The type of first aid equipment and training required depends on:

• the number of employees,
• the types of hazards present at the workplace, and
• the travel distance to a hospital/availability of professional medical assistance.

In addition, each jurisdiction will have specific requirements for reporting injuries (types, length of time to report to compensation board, details that need to be reported, etc.).

What does the legislation say?

First aid regulations will specify, in detail, your jurisdiction's requirements. These details will include:

• the need for a first aid attendant
• the level of training or certification required for the first aid attendant
• number of first aid attendants required (during operational hours or per shift)
• the type and amount of first aid supplies and facilities (content of first aid kits and room equipment)
• location of kits and notices (in some cases)
• emergency transportation
• accident/incident reporting requirements

Legislation may also specify that first aid supplies are to be, for example:

• stocked with required and appropriate items
• kept clean and dry
• checked regularly for expiry dates
• maintained so they meet the regulations
• requirements, at minimum (e.g., restocked when supplies are used)
• stored in a visible and accessible location

What documentation is required?

Employers are usually required to maintain written records of all injuries and treatment given in a first aid treatment record book or log. Each event should be recorded and include:

• the worker's name,
• date and time of injury,
• location and nature of the injury,
• description of how the injury occurred,
• type or description of first aid treatment given,
• time first aid was given,
• patient's signature,
• first aid attendant's signature,
• date and time of reporting, and
• name of person the injury was reported to.

Where this book is kept and who has access to it may vary with the need for privacy.

What should all employees know about first aid?

Only employees trained in first aid should assist a victim. Never give first aid treatment for which you are not trained.

As part of their emergency preparedness training, employees should know how to respond during an injury or illness situation. In terms of first aid, employees should know:

• Procedures to be followed when first aid is required (including what types of injuries should be reported) (e.g., who to call for help, remain with the victim until first aid attendants arrive, etc.)
• Location of first aid room and/or first aid kit(s).
• Location of a list of first aid attendants which indicates where to find the attendant or a telephone number.
• Location of a list of nearest medical facilities (name, address, operating hours and telephone numbers).
• Location of a list of the organization's key personnel by name, title and telephone numbers that are prioritized by "call first, call second, etc."

Do I need to do a hazard assessment for first aid?

While a first aid hazard assessment is not required in all jurisdictions, conducting one will ensure the workplace is prepared for all likely emergencies and the types of first aid treatment that may be needed. It is essential to know the exact hazards in the workplace as being prepared will also help reduce the severity of any events.

For example, if you work in an autobody repair shop, provisions should be made to have training and first aid supplies for:

• Burns and welding flash from welding
• Burns and eye injuries from grinding
• Cuts, scrapes, etc. from general work
• Chemical exposure to the eye or skin from paints, thinners, gasoline, etc.
• Muscle injuries from lifting and bending
• Etc.

Depending on the workplace, there may also be need to consider:

• Chemicals that may require a specific sequence of treatment steps, emergency eye-wash stations or showers, or an antidote
• Crowd control (e.g., at schools, retail stores, music concerts, fairgrounds, etc.)
• Special needs (e.g., persons with disabilities, known medical conditions, age of persons regularly in the workplace (especially children or elderly))
• Employees who work alone
• Transportation to a medical facility (e.g., need for vehicle, boat or plane, need for a second person to accompany the injured person, etc.)

What is a sample checklist for a first aid assessment?

Below is a sample worksheet. Customize it for your workplace needs. Alternatively, the information collected in other job safety analysis or hazard assessments may be used.

Worksheet
Name and Location of Workplace:
Hazard Assessment: Jobs done at this worksite, work processes, equipment, tools, chemicals, materials, etc.
Types of injuries that may occur (include common and rare events)
Number of Workers Per Shift
Required First Aid (e.g., attendants, first aid kits, supplies as stated in legislation)
Barriers to First Aid (e.g., travel distance to nearest hospital or treatment centre)
Summary of Findings (e.g., Is there need for specialized training, transportation, etc. which may be above legislated minimum requirements?)
Action Required
Date:
Name and Signature:

Fire safety: Home safety tips

The most important convenience around the home is safety. The following tips are provided to help you keep your home and family safe.

General home safety

Here are a few easy ways to increase safety in your home:

• Check smoke detectors the first or last day of every month by testing them with a well-aimed poke from a broomstick. Change batteries when you turn your clocks forward or backward for daylight savings time.
• Keep your stove company. Kitchen fires often occur when wandering cooks forget that they are cooking. When cooking, wear short or close-fitting sleeves to prevent clothing from catching fire.
• Keep furniture away from windows so that children can be prevented from tumbling out an open window. Drawers have been used by children as stairs so be sure to anchor tall chests to walls to prevent them from falling over. This will also be helpful in case of an earthquake.
• Use a step-stool or ladder with nonslip treads, a safety rail and rubber-capped feet instead of climbing on a chair, counter or table to change light bulbs or grab something out of reach.
• Stairs should be used only for feet, not for storage of toys, laundry, etc.

Be kitchen wise

Most home fires begin with cooking equipment. When in the kitchen, remember to:

• Never leave cooking unattended.
• Wear clothes with tight fitting sleeves when cooking.
• Always set a kitchen timer to remind you to turn off burners and/or oven.
• Keep stove surfaces free of clutter and built-up grease.
• Always have a lid or some type of non-combustible flat surface to put over a pan fire so that it will be smothered out.
• Never pick up and run with a pan fire that has the potential to spread the fire even further.

Install smoke detectors

Be sure to have smoke detectors in all sleeping areas and on every level of your home including the basement. Have a smoke detector either in each bedroom or in the hall adjacent to the bedroom.

Test the batteries in your smoke detectors monthly, and replace your batteries when you turn your clocks forward or back for daylight saving time. If you are hearing impaired, use a tested and approved smoke detector that triggers a strobe light.

Every home should have a fire extinguisher

At least one fire extinguisher should be installed in plain view above the reach of children in every home. They should be positioned near escape routes and away from stoves or heating appliances.

Keep an all-purpose fire extinguisher in an accessible place and make sure everyone in your home knows how to use it. A multi-purpose fire extinguisher is best. Look for the rating to be at least 2A:10 B:C on the label. This type of extinguisher can be used on any commonly caused type of fire.

Extinguishers should be inspected and serviced based upon the manufacturer's service schedule. Rechargeable models must be serviced after every use. Disposable fire extinguishers can be used only once, then must be replaced.

If you have a fire, always call 911 first and then proceed as follows to operate an extinguisher, using the PASS system:

• PULL the pin out to unlock the operating lever.
• AIM low; point the extinguisher nozzle (or hose) at the base of the fire.
• SQUEEZE the lever below the handle to release the chemical.
• SWEEP from side to side, moving carefully toward the fire. Keep the extinguisher aimed at the base of the fire and sweep back and forth until the flames appear to be out. Watch the fire area. If the fire re-ignites, repeat the process.

Family escape plan

Have an escape plan and have everyone in the family practice the plan:

• Know two ways out of each room (think doors and windows).
• Have a meeting spot outside the house.
• Have all members of the family practice "Stop, Drop and Roll."

Give space heaters space

Keep electric or any type of portable space heater at least 3-feet from everything, including you! Just brushing against one could set your clothing on fire. See winter safety tips for more information.

Prevent clothes dryer fires

The National Fire Protection Association reports approximately 14,100 fires per year that are caused by improperly venting a dryer or careless maintenance procedures. Tips for dryer safety:

• Prevent fires with proper dryer duct installation. The dryer duct should vent directly outdoors - never to a room inside the house. Venting a gas dryer inside is especially dangerous because the air discharge can contain a combination of combustible gases.

• Avoid using plastic duct work because it could ignite or melt. Instead, install a hard metal duct from the dryer to the outside of the house.

• Keep the duct free of lint to help reduce the chance of fire spreading outside the dryer and into the vent. Never attempt to dismantle a dryer to clean the line between the dryer drum and the heat element. Contact a professional to do that type of work.

• Use dryer vents constructed of non-flexible metal that contain as few bends as possible.

• Clean the lint trap after every use.

• Call a professional if your dryer is not working properly.

• Install a smoke detector near your laundry room.

Candles

Never leave burning candles unattended and always have them in or on a non-combustible surface and away from any combustible surface.

Don't place lighted candles near paper, draperies or clothing and never leave papers near a furnace or fireplace.

Be smoker wary

Use large, deep, non-tipping ashtrays. Empty ashtrays often, wetting the contents before dumping into the trash. Never smoke in bed.

What is an accident and why should it be investigated?

UMUKPEDI EMMANUEL

The term "accident" can be defined as an unplanned event that interrupts the completion of an activity, and that may (or may not) include injury or property damage.

An incident usually refers to an unexpected event that did not cause injury or damage this time but had the potential. "Near miss" or "dangerous occurrence" are also terms for an event that could have caused harm but did not.

Please note: The term incident is used in some situations and jurisdictions to cover both an "accident" and "incident". It is argued that the word "accident" implies that the event was related to fate or chance. When the root cause is determined, it is usually found that many events were predictable and could have been prevented if the right actions were taken -- making the event not one of fate or chance (thus, the word incident is used). For simplicity, we will use the term accident to mean all of the above events.

The information that follows is intended to be a general guide for supervisors or joint occupational health and safety committee members. When accidents are investigated, the emphasis should be concentrated on finding the root cause of the accident rather than the investigation procedure itself so you can prevent it from happening again. The purpose is to find facts that can lead to actions, not to find fault. Always look for deeper causes. Do not simply record the steps of the event.

Reasons to investigate a workplace accident include:

• most importantly, to find out the cause of accidents and to prevent similar accidents in the future
• to fulfill any legal requirements
• to determine the cost of an accident
• to determine compliance with applicable safety regulations
• to process workers' compensation claims

Incidents that involve no injury or property damage should still be investigated to determine the hazards that should be corrected. The same principles apply to a quick inquiry of a minor incident and to the more formal investigation of a serious event.

Who should do the accident investigating?

Ideally, an investigation would be conducted by someone experienced in accident causation, experienced in investigative techniques, fully knowledgeable of the work processes, procedures, persons, and industrial relations environment of a particular situation.

Some jurisdictions provide guidance such as requiring that it must be conducted jointly, with both management and labour represented, or that the investigators must be knowledgeable about the work processes involved.

In most cases, the supervisor should help investigate the event. Other members of the team can include:

• employees with knowledge of the work
• safety officer
• health and safety committee
• union representative, if applicable
• employees with experience in investigations
• "outside" expert
• representative from local government

Should the immediate supervisor be on the team?

The advantage is that this person is likely to know most about the work and persons involved and the current conditions. Furthermore, the supervisor can usually take immediate remedial action. The counter argument is that there may be an attempt to gloss over the supervisors shortcomings in the accident. This situation should not arise if the accident is investigated by a team of people, and if the worker representative(s) and the members review all accident investigation reports thoroughly.

Why look for the root cause?

An investigator who believes that accidents are caused by unsafe conditions will likely try to uncover conditions as causes. On the other hand, one who believes they are caused by unsafe acts will attempt to find the human errors that are causes. Therefore, it is necessary to examine some underlying factors in a chain of events that ends in an accident.

The important point is that even in the most seemingly straightforward accidents,seldom, if ever, is there only a single cause. For example, an "investigation" which concludes that an accident was due to worker carelessness, and goes no further, fails to seek answers to several important questions such as:

• Was the worker distracted? If yes, why was the worker distracted?
• Was a safe work procedure being followed? If not, why not?
• Were safety devices in order? If not, why not?
• Was the worker trained? If not, why not?

An inquiry that answers these and related questions will probably reveal conditions that are more open to correction than attempts to prevent "carelessness".

What are the steps involved in investigating an accident?

The accident investigation process involves the following steps:

• Report the accident occurrence to a designated person within the organization
• Provide first aid and medical care to injured person(s) and prevent further injuries or damage
• Investigate the accident
• Identify the causes
• Report the findings
• Develop a plan for corrective action
• Implement the plan
• Evaluate the effectiveness of the corrective action
• Make changes for continuous improvement

As little time as possible should be lost between the moment of an accident or near miss and the beginning of the investigation. In this way, one is most likely to be able to observe the conditions as they were at the time, prevent disturbance of evidence, and identify witnesses. The tools that members of the investigating team may need (pencil, paper, camera, film, camera flash, tape measure, etc.) should be immediately available so that no time is wasted.

What should be looked at as the cause of an accident?

Accident Causation Models

Many models of accident causation have been proposed, ranging from Heinrich's domino theory to the sophisticated Management Oversight and Risk Tree (MORT).

The simple model shown in Figure 1 attempts to illustrate that the causes of any accident can be grouped into five categories - task, material, environment, personnel, and management. When this model is used, possible causes in each category should be investigated. Each category is examined more closely below. Remember that these are sample questions only: no attempt has been made to develop a comprehensive checklist.

Figure 1: Accident Causation

Task

Here the actual work procedure being used at the time of the accident is explored. Members of the accident investigation team will look for answers to questions such as:

• Was a safe work procedure used?
• Had conditions changed to make the normal procedure unsafe?
• Were the appropriate tools and materials available?
• Were they used?
• Were safety devices working properly?
• Was lockout used when necessary?

For most of these questions, an important follow-up question is "If not, why not?"

Material

To seek out possible causes resulting from the equipment and materials used, investigators might ask:

• Was there an equipment failure?
• What caused it to fail?
• Was the machinery poorly designed?
• Were hazardous substances involved?
• Were they clearly identified?
• Was a less hazardous alternative substance possible and available?
• Was the raw material substandard in some way?
• Should personal protective equipment (PPE) have been used?
• Was the PPE used?
• Were users of PPE properly trained?

Again, each time the answer reveals an unsafe condition, the investigator must ask whythis situation was allowed to exist.

Environment

The physical environment, and especially sudden changes to that environment, are factors that need to be identified. The situation at the time of the accident is what is important, not what the "usual" conditions were. For example, accident investigators may want to know:

• What were the weather conditions?
• Was poor housekeeping a problem?
• Was it too hot or too cold?
• Was noise a problem?
• Was there adequate light?
• Were toxic or hazardous gases, dusts, or fumes present?

Personnel

The physical and mental condition of those individuals directly involved in the event must be explored. The purpose for investigating the accident is not to establish blame against someone but the inquiry will not be complete unless personal characteristics are considered. Some factors will remain essentially constant while others may vary from day to day:

• Were workers experienced in the work being done?
• Had they been adequately trained?
• Can they physically do the work?
• What was the status of their health?
• Were they tired?
• Were they under stress (work or personal)?

Management

Management holds the legal responsibility for the safety of the workplace and therefore the role of supervisors and higher management and the role or presence of management systems must always be considered in an accident investigation. Failures of management systems are often found to be direct or indirect factors in accidents. Ask questions such as:

• Were safety rules communicated to and understood by all employees?
• Were written procedures and orientation available?
• Were they being enforced?
• Was there adequate supervision?
• Were workers trained to do the work?
• Had hazards been previously identified?
• Had procedures been developed to overcome them?
• Were unsafe conditions corrected?
• Was regular maintenance of equipment carried out?
• Were regular safety inspections carried out?

This model of accident investigations provides a guide for uncovering all possible causes and reduces the likelihood of looking at facts in isolation. Some investigators may prefer to place some of the sample questions in different categories; however, the categories are not important, as long as each pertinent question is asked. Obviously there is considerable overlap between categories; this reflects the situation in real life. Again it should be emphasized that the above sample questions do not make up a complete checklist, but are examples only.

How are the facts collected?

The steps in accident investigation are simple: the accident investigators gather information, analyze it, draw conclusions, and make recommendations. Although the procedures are straightforward, each step can have its pitfalls. As mentioned above, an open mind is necessary in accident investigation: preconceived notions may result in some wrong paths being followed while leaving some significant facts uncovered. All possible causes should be considered. Making notes of ideas as they occur is a good practice but conclusions should not be drawn until all the information is gathered.

Injured workers(s)

The most important immediate tasks--rescue operations, medical treatment of the injured, and prevention of further injuries--have priority and others must not interfere with these activities. When these matters are under control, the investigators can start their work.

Physical Evidence

Before attempting to gather information, examine the site for a quick overview, take steps to preserve evidence, and identify all witnesses. In some jurisdictions, an accident site must not be disturbed without prior approval from appropriate government officials such as the coroner, inspector, or police. Physical evidence is probably the most non-controversial information available. It is also subject to rapid change or obliteration; therefore, it should be the first to be recorded. Based on your knowledge of the work process, you may want to check items such as:

• positions of injured workers
• equipment being used
• materials or chemicals being used
• safety devices in use
• position of appropriate guards
• position of controls of machinery
• damage to equipment
• housekeeping of area
• weather conditions
• lighting levels
• noise levels
• time of day

You may want to take photographs before anything is moved, both of the general area and specific items. Later careful study of these may reveal conditions or observations missed previously. Sketches of the accident scene based on measurements taken may also help in subsequent analysis and will clarify any written reports. Broken equipment, debris, and samples of materials involved may be removed for further analysis by appropriate experts. Even if photographs are taken, written notes about the location of these items at the accident scene should be prepared.

Eyewitness Accounts

Although there may be occasions when you are unable to do so, every effort should be made to interview witnesses. In some situations witnesses may be your primary source of information because you may be called upon to investigate an accident without being able to examine the scene immediately after the event. Because witnesses may be under severe emotional stress or afraid to be completely open for fear of recrimination, interviewing witnesses is probably the hardest task facing an investigator.

Witnesses should be kept apart and interviewed as soon as possible after the accident. If witnesses have an opportunity to discuss the event among themselves, individual perceptions may be lost in the normal process of accepting a consensus view where doubt exists about the facts.

Witnesses should be interviewed alone, rather than in a group. You may decide to interview a witness at the scene of the accident where it is easier to establish the positions of each person involved and to obtain a description of the events. On the other hand, it may be preferable to carry out interviews in a quiet office where there will be fewer distractions. The decision may depend in part on the nature of the accident and the mental state of the witnesses.

Interviewing

Interviewing is an art that cannot be given justice in a brief document such as this, but a few do's and don'ts can be mentioned. The purpose of the interview is to establish an understanding with the witness and to obtain his or her own words describing the event:

DO...

• put the witness, who is probably upset, at ease
• emphasize the real reason for the investigation, to determine what happened and why
• let the witness talk, listen
• confirm that you have the statement correct
• try to sense any underlying feelings of the witness
• make short notes or ask someone else on the team to take them during the interview
• ask if it is okay to record the interview, if you are doing so
• close on a positive note

DO NOT...

• intimidate the witness
• interrupt
• prompt
• ask leading questions
• show your own emotions
• jump to conclusions

Ask open-ended questions that cannot be answered by simply "yes" or "no". The actual questions you ask the witness will naturally vary with each accident, but there are some general questions that should be asked each time:

• Where were you at the time of the accident?
• What were you doing at the time?
• What did you see, hear?
• What were the environmental conditions (weather, light, noise, etc.) at the time?
• What was (were) the injured worker(s) doing at the time?
• In your opinion, what caused the accident?
• How might similar accidents be prevented in the future?

If you were not at the scene at the time, asking questions is a straightforward approach to establishing what happened. Obviously, care must be taken to assess the credibility of any statements made in the interviews. Answers to a first few questions will generally show how well the witness could actually observe what happened.

Another technique sometimes used to determine the sequence of events is to re-enact or replay them as they happened. Obviously, great care must be taken so that further injury or damage does not occur. A witness (usually the injured worker) is asked to reenact in slow motion the actions that preceded the accident.

Background Information

A third, and often an overlooked source of information, can be found in documents such as technical data sheets, health and safety committee minutes, inspection reports, company policies, maintenance reports, past accident reports, formalized safe-work procedures, and training reports. Any pertinent information should be studied to see what might have happened, and what changes might be recommended to prevent recurrence of similar accidents.

What should I know when making the analysis and conclusions?

At this stage of the investigation most of the facts about what happened and how it happened should be known. This has taken considerable effort to accomplish but it represents only the first half of the objective. Now comes the key question--why did it happen? To prevent recurrences of similar accidents, the investigators must find all possible answers to this question.

You have kept an open mind to all possibilities and looked for all pertinent facts. There may still be gaps in your understanding of the sequence of events that resulted in the accident. You may need to reinterview some witnesses to fill these gaps in your knowledge.

• When your analysis is complete, write down a step-by-step account of what happened (your conclusions) working back from the moment of the accident, listing all possible causes at each step. This is not extra work: it is a draft for part of the final report. Each conclusion should be checked to see if:
• it is supported by evidence
• the evidence is direct (physical or documentary) or based on eyewitness accounts, or
• the evidence is based on assumption.

This list serves as a final check on discrepancies that should be explained or eliminated.

Why should recommendations be made?

The most important final step is to come up with a set of well-considered recommendations designed to prevent recurrences of similar accidents. Once you are knowledgeable about the work processes involved and the overall situation in your organization, it should not be too difficult to come up with realistic recommendations. Recommendations should:

• be specific
• be constructive
• get at root causes
• identify contributing factors

Resist the temptation to make only general recommendations to save time and effort.

For example, you have determined that a blind corner contributed to an accident. Rather than just recommending "eliminate blind corners" it would be better to suggest:

• install mirrors at the northwest corner of building X (specific to this accident)
• install mirrors at blind corners where required throughout the worksite (general)

Never make recommendations about disciplining a person or persons who may have been at fault. This would not only be counter to the real purpose of the investigation, but it would jeopardize the chances for a free flow of information in future accident investigations.

In the unlikely event that you have not been able to determine the causes of an accident with any certainty, you probably still have uncovered safety weaknesses in the operation. It is appropriate that recommendations be made to correct these deficiencies.

The Written Report

If your organization has a standard form that must be used, you will have little choice in the form that your written report is to be presented. Nevertheless, you should be aware of, and try to overcome, shortcomings such as:

• If a limited space is provided for an answer, the tendency will be to answer in that space despite recommendations to "use back of form if necessary."
• If a checklist of causes is included, possible causes not listed may be overlooked.
• Headings such as "unsafe condition" will usually elicit a single response even when more than one unsafe condition exists.
• Differentiating between "primary cause" and "contributing factors" can be misleading. All accident causes are important and warrant consideration for possible corrective action.

Your previously prepared draft of the sequence of events can now be used to describe what happened. Remember that readers of your report do not have the intimate knowledge of the accident that you have so include all pertinent detail. Photographs and diagrams may save many words of description. Identify clearly where evidence is based on certain facts, eyewitness accounts, or your assumptions.

If doubt exists about any particular part, say so. The reasons for your conclusions should be stated and followed by your recommendations. Weed out extra material that is not required for a full understanding of the accident and its causes such as photographs that are not relevant and parts of the investigation that led you nowhere. The measure of a good accident report is quality, not quantity.

Always communicate your findings with workers, supervisors and management. Present your information 'in context' so everyone understands how the accident occurred and the actions in place to prevent it from happening again.

What should be done if the investigation reveals human error

A difficulty that has bothered many investigators is the idea that one does not want to lay blame. However, when a thorough worksite accident investigation reveals that some person or persons among management, supervisor, and the workers were apparently at fault, then this fact should be pointed out. The intention here is to remedy the situation, not to discipline an individual.

Failing to point out human failings that contributed to an accident will not only downgrade the quality of the investigation. Furthermore, it will also allow future accidents to happen from similar causes because they have not been addressed.

However never make recommendations about disciplining anyone who may be at fault. Any disciplinary steps should be done within the normal personnel procedures.

How should follow-up be handled?

Management is responsible for acting on the recommendations in the accident investigation report. The health and safety committee, if you have one, can monitor the progress of these actions.

Follow-up actions include:

• Respond to the recommendations in the report by explaining what can and cannot be done (and why or why not).
• Develop a timetable for corrective actions.
• Monitor that the scheduled actions have been completed.
• Check the condition of injured worker(s).
• Inform and train other workers at risk.
• Re-orient worker(s) on their return to work.

What is an example of an emergency management checklist?

BY UMUKPEDI EMMANUEL

The following checklist can be used to help organize your emergency management and response plan. Be sure to customize this list with items specific to your needs.

Element	Documented		Functional Ability Proven		Comments
	Yes	No	Yes	No
Statement of policy on emergency response
Plan given appropriate authority by highest management level
Plan is distributed to all that need to know
Plan establishes the emergency organization
The authority to declare a full evacuation is designated
The authority to declare the emergency is "over" is designated
All response personnel are medically fit to perform their duties
The following functions have been clearly defined and assigned to individuals:
- Plan administration
- Operational control
- Coordination of support
- Plan maintenance
- Regular risk assessment
- Training
- Drills and exercises
- Maintenance of equipment
- Specific response functions
- Coordination of off site plans
Alternates for all key positions exist
Plan is based on risk assessment
Plan provides for annual drills and exercises
Plan establishes various levels of emergencies with levels of response
Plan includes basic elements:
- Evacuation procedures
- Shutdown procedures
- Employee roll call procedures
- Rescue and medical duties
- Reporting procedures
- Fire prevention plan
All types of risks are considered:
- Natural
- Man-made
- Civil disorders
All hazardous materials are listed
Assessment includes adverse impact off-site
Comprehensive accident investigation procedures exist
Good housekeeping procedures exist
Procedures exist for inspection or testing of critical equipment
Procedures call for the review of all new processes and equipment for compliance with:
- Occupational Health and Safety Act
- National Fire Code
- National Electrical Code
- Environmental Protection Act
- Other applicable legal requirements
Fire protection equipment is inspected per fire code
Contractors are briefed about Emergency Response Plans
The plan establishes a command post and ensures:
- Command post locations provide protection from hazards
- The command post is adequately equipped
- Provisions have been made for emergency power, light, utilities, etc.
Plan provides for emergency response training and covers the following:
- Emergency response training is based on specific hazards and response duties
- Testing of knowledge and skills is required
- Plan specifies type and frequency of training for each response function
- Adequate training records are kept
- Minimum training levels are defined
- Training of first aid responders complies with standards
A current inventory list of all equipment and supplies exists:
- Maintenance and decontamination procedures are included
- Equipment is tested as specified by the manufacturer
- Equipment and supply needs are reviewed when changes occur
- Contact lists for suppliers of emergency equipment and supplies maintained, updated and readily available
- Respiratory equipment selection, use and maintenance comply with current standard
Mutual aid agreements are in place:
- Call lists and letters of agreement are up-to-date
- Drills involving mutual aid have been held
- Capabilities of community organizations have been reviewed and considered
Communication procedures include:
- Telephone
- Two-way radios
- Intercom
- Runners
- Emergency numbers are posted at telephones
Effective detection systems are installed, such as:
- Smoke detectors
- Heat detectors
- Remote substance monitors
- Leak detectors
- Process control alarms
Detection devices undergo regular testing, inspection, maintenance and calibration
Regular tests of the alarm systems are conducted
Evacuation details involve:
- At least two evacuation routes exist from each area
- All emergency exits are properly marked
- All employees are instructed in evacuation procedures
- Maps and procedures are posted
- Assembly areas consider safe distances
- All employees and visitors can be accounted for
- Procedures address special needs of person(s) with disabilities
- Temporary shelter or transportation is considered
- The security function is defined
- Facility access is controlled during an emergency
- Traffic control has been considered
- Pilferage and theft have been considered
- High security risk areas have been identified
- There are physical security devices
The plan includes media relations before, during and after the emergency:
- Public information documents exist
- Those dealing with the media/public are trained
- Contacts with the media are established and maintained
- Media information is reviewed annually and updated
- Procedures control the release of information to the public during an emergency
- Names and information regarding the injured are restricted
- Regular media releases are made during an emergency
Other:
- Emergency shutdown procedures exist
- Responsibility for shutdown is assigned
- Procedures and checklists have been developed
- Diagrams and maps indicating critical components are available
- All critical components are clearly identified
- Persons with special technological knowledge are available to emergency personnel
- An alternative location for continuing operations management is identified
- Resource list has been developed for sources of equipment, supplies, services or contractors
- Agreements have been made with other facilities to continue production of products
- Procedures are adequate to document all compensable losses
- Procedures provide for preserving the accident scene for investigations
- A safety plan is required prior to re-entry into affected areas

What is a Job Safety Analysis?

BY UMUKPEDI EMMANUEL

A job safety analysis (JSA) is a procedure which helps integrate accepted safety and health principles and practices into a particular task or job operation. In a JSA, each basic step of the job is to identify potential hazards and to recommend the safest way to do the job. Other terms used to describe this procedure are job hazard analysis (JHA) and job hazard breakdown.

Some individuals prefer to expand the analysis into all aspects of the job, not just safety. This approach is known as total job analysis. Methodology is based on the idea that safety is an integral part of every job and not a separate entity. In this document, only health and safety aspects will be considered.

The terms "job" and "task" are commonly used interchangeably to mean a specific work assignment, such as "operating a grinder," "using a pressurized water extinguisher," or "changing a flat tire." JSAs are not suitable for jobs defined too broadly, for example, "overhauling an engine"; or too narrowly, for example, "positioning car jack."

What are the benefits of doing a Job Safety Analysis?

One of the methods used in this example is to observe a worker actually perform the job. The major advantages of this method include that it does not rely on individual memory and that the process prompts recognition of hazards. For infrequently performed or new jobs, observation may not be practical.

One approach is to have a group of experienced workers and supervisors complete the analysis through discussion. An advantage of this method is that more people are involved in a wider base of experience and promoting a more ready acceptance of the resulting work procedure. Members of the joint occupational safety and health committee must participate in this process.

Initial benefits from developing a JSA will become clear in the preparation stage. The analysis process may identify previously undetected hazards and increase the job knowledge of those participating. Safety and health awareness is raised, communication between workers and supervisors is improved, and acceptance of safe work procedures is promoted.

A JSA, or better still, a written work procedure based on it, can form the basis for regular contact between supervisors and workers. It can serve as a teaching aid for initial job training and as a briefing guide for infrequent jobs. It may be used as a standard for health and safety inspections or observations. In particular, a JSA will assist in completing comprehensive accident investigations.

What are the four basic steps?

Four basic stages in conducting a JSA are:

• selecting the job to be analyzed
• breaking the job down into a sequence of steps
• identifying potential hazards
• determining preventive measures to overcome these hazards

What is important to know when "selecting the job"?

Ideally, all jobs should be subjected to a JSA. In some cases there are practical constraints posed by the amount of time and effort required to do a JSA. Another consideration is that each JSA will require revision whenever equipment, raw materials, processes, or the environment change. For these reasons, it is usually necessary to identify which jobs are to be analyzed. Even if analysis of all jobs is planned, this step ensures that the most critical jobs are examined first.

Factors to be considered in setting a priority for analysis of jobs include:

• Accident frequency and severity: jobs where accidents occur frequently or where they occur infrequently but result in disabling injuries.
• Potential for severe injuries or illnesses: the consequences of an accident, hazardous condition, or exposure to harmful substance are potentially severe.
• Newly established jobs: due to lack of experience in these jobs, hazards may not be evident or anticipated.
• Modified jobs: new hazards may be associated with changes in job procedures.
• Infrequently performed jobs: workers may be at greater risk when undertaking non-routine jobs, and a JSA provides a means of reviewing hazards.

How do I break the job into "basic steps"?

After a job has been chosen for analysis, the next stage is to break the job into steps. A job step is defined as a segment of the operation necessary to advance the work. See examples below.

Care must be taken not to make the steps too general. Missing specific steps and their associated hazards will not help. On the other hand, if they are too detailed, there will be too many steps. A rule of thumb is that most jobs can be described in less than ten steps. If more steps are required, you might want to divide the job into two segments, each with its separate JSA, or combine steps where appropriate. As an example, the job of changing a flat tire will be used in this document.

An important point to remember is to keep the steps in their correct sequence. Any step which is out of order may miss serious potential hazards or introduce hazards which do not actually exist.

Each step is recorded in sequence. Make notes about what is done rather than how it is done. Each item is started with an action verb. Appendix A illustrates a format which can be used as a worksheet in preparing a JSA. Job steps are recorded in the left hand column, as shown below:

Sequence of Events	Potential Accidents or Hazards	Preventive Measures
Park vehicle
Remove spare and tool kit
Pry off hub cap and loosen lug bolts (nuts)
And so on.....

This part of the analysis is usually prepared by knowing or watching a worker do the job. The observer is normally the immediate supervisor. For a more thorough analysis often happens by having another person, preferably a member of the joint occupational health and safety committee, participate in the observation. Key points are less likely to be missed in this way.

The job observer should have experienced and be capable in all parts of the job. To strengthen full co-operation and participation, the reason for the exercise must be clearly explained. The JSA is neither a time and motion study in disguise, nor an attempt to uncover individual unsafe acts. The job, not the individual, is being studied in an effort to make it safer by identifying hazards and making modifications to eliminate or reduce them. The worker's experience contributes in making job and safety improvements.

The job should be observed during normal times and situations. For example, if a job is routinely done only at night, the JSA review should also be done at night. Similarly, only regular tools and equipment should be used. The only difference from normal operations is the fact that the worker is being observed.

When completed, the breakdown of steps should be discussed by all the participants (always including the worker) to make that all basic steps have been noted and are in the correct order.

How do I "identify potential hazards"?

Once the basic steps have been recorded, potential hazards must be identified at each step. Based on observations of the job, knowledge of accident and injury causes, and personal experience, list the things that could go wrong at each step.

A second observation of the job being performed may be needed. Since the basic steps have already been recorded, more attention can now be focused on each potential hazards. At this stage, no attempt is made to solve any problems which may have been detected.

To help identify potential hazards, the job analyst may use questions such as these ( this is not a complete list):

• Can any body part get caught in or between objects?
• Do tools, machines, or equipment present any hazards?
• Can the worker make harmful contact with moving objects?
• Can the worker slip, trip, or fall?
• Can the worker suffer strain from lifting, pushing, or pulling?
• Is the worker exposed to extreme heat or cold?
• Is excessive noise or vibration a problem?
• Is there a danger from falling objects?
• Is lighting a problem?
• Can weather conditions affect safety?
• Is harmful radiation a possibility?
• Can contact be made with hot, toxic, or caustic substances?
• Are there dusts, fumes, mists, or vapours in the air?

Potential hazards are listed in the middle column of the worksheet, numbered to match the corresponding job step. For example:

Sequence of Events	Potential Accidents or Hazards	Preventive Measures
Park vehicle	a) Vehicle too close to passing trafficb) Vehicle on uneven, soft ground c) Vehicle may roll.
Remove spare and tool kit	a) Strain from lifting spare.
Pry off hub cap and loosen lug bolts (nuts).	a) Hub cap may pop off and hit youb) Lug wrench may slip
And so on.....	a) ...

Again, all participants should jointly review this part of the analysis.

How do I "determine preventive measures?"

The final stage in a JSA is to determine ways to eliminate or control the hazards identified. The generally accepted measures, in order of preference, are:

1. Eliminate the hazard

This is the most effective measure. These techniques should be used to eliminate the hazards:

• Choose a different process
• Modify an existing process
• Substitute with less hazardous substance
• Improve environment (ventilation)
• Modify or change equipment or tools

2. Contain the hazard

If the hazard cannot be eliminated, contact might be prevented by using enclosures, machine guards, worker booths or similar devices.

3. Revise work procedures

Consideration might be given to modifying steps which are hazardous, changing the sequence of steps, or adding additional steps (such as locking out energy sources).

4. Reduce the exposure

These measures are the least effective and should only be used if no other solutions are possible. One way of minimizing exposure is to reduce the number of times the hazard is encountered. An example would be modifying machinery so that less maintenance is necessary. The use of appropriate personal protective equipment may be required. To reduce the severity of an accident, emergency facilities, such as eyewash stations, may need to be provided.

In listing the preventive measures, do not use general statements such as "be careful" or "use caution". Specific statements which describe both what action is to be taken and how it is to be performed are preferable. The recommended measures are listed in the right hand column of the worksheet, numbered to match the hazard in question. For example:

Sequence of Events	Potential Accidents or Hazards	Preventive Measures
Park vehicle	a) Vehicle too close to passing trafficb) Vehicle on uneven, soft ground c) Vehicle may roll.	a) Drive to area well clear of traffic. Turn on emergency flashersb)Choose a firm, level parking area c) Apply the parking brake; leave transmission in PARK; place blocks in front and back of the wheel diagonally opposite to the flat
Remove spare and tool kit	a) Strain from lifting spare.	a) Turn spare into upright position in the wheel well. Using your legs and standing as close as possible, lift spare out of truck and roll to flat tire.
Pry off hub cap and loosen lug bolts (nuts).	a) Hub cap may pop off and hit you b) Lug wrench may slip	a) Pry off hub cap using steady pressureb) Use proper lug wrench; apply steady pressure slowly.
And so on.....	a) ...	a) ...

How should I make the information available to everyone else?

JSA is a useful technique for identifying hazards so that workers can take measures to eliminate or control hazards. Once the analysis is completed, the results must be communicated to all workers who are, or will be, performing that job. The side-by-side format used in JSA worksheets is not an ideal one for instructional purposes. Better results can be achieved by using a narrative-style communication format. For example, the work procedure based on the partial JSA developed as an example in this document might start out like this:

1. Park vehicle.

a) Drive vehicle off the road to an area well clear of traffic, even if it requires rolling on a flat tire. Turn on the emergency flashers to alert passing drivers so that they will not hit you.

b) Choose a firm and level area for parking. You can jack up the vehicle to prevent rolling.

c) Apply the parking brake, leave the transmission in PARK, place blocks in front and back of the wheel diagonally opposite the flat. These actions will also help prevent the vehicle from rolling.

2. Remove spare and tool kit.

a) To avoid back strain, turn the spare up into an upright position in its well. Stand as close to the trunk as possible and slide the spare close to your body. Lift out and roll to flat tire.

3. Pry off hub cap, loosen lug bolts (nuts).

a) Pry off hub cap slowly with steady pressure to prevent it from popping off and striking you.

b) Using the proper lug wrench, apply steady pressure slowly to loosen the lug bolts (nuts) so that the wrench will not slip, get lost or and hurt your knuckles.

4. And so on.

Appendix A: Sample form for Job Safety Analysis Worksheet

Job Safety Analysis Worksheet
Job:
Analysis By:	Reviewed By:	Approved By:
Date:	Date:	Date:
Sequence of Steps	Potential Accidents or Hazards	Preventative Measures

Appendix B: Sample forms for Tasks and Job Inventory

Tasks with Potential Exposure to Hazardous Materials or Physical Agents
Analysis By:	Reviewed By:	Approved By:
Date:	Date:	Date:
Tasks	Name of Material or Physical Agent	Location

Job Inventory of Hazardous Chemicals
Analysis By:	Reviewed By:	Approved By:
Date:	Date:	Date:
Name of Chemical	Route of Entry and Physical State	Controls